Methods of treating cerebral edema and spinal cord edema

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to the use of selective aquaporin inhibitors, e.g., of aquaporin-4 or aquaporin-2, e.g., certain phenylbenzamide compounds, for the prophylaxis, treatment and control of aquaporin-mediated conditions, e.g., diseases of water imbalance, for example edema (particularly edema of the brain and spinal cord, e.g., following trauma or ischemic stroke, as well as the edema associated with glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and lupus cerebritis, as well as edema consequent to microgravity and/or radiation exposure, as well as edema consequent to invasive central nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation, as well as retinal edema), as well as hyponatremia and excess fluid retention, and diseases such as epilepsy, retinal ischemia and other diseases of the eye associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, and neuromyelitis optica, as well as migraines, as well as to novel assays for identifying aquaporin inhibitors.

NEW METHODS

This application is the National Stage Entry under 35 U.S.C. § 371 of International Application No. PCT/US2013/040194 filed May 8, 2013, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/644,268 filed May 8, 2012, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/651,778 filed May 25, 2012, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/799,606 filed Mar. 15, 2013, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under Grant Numbers R43 NS060199 and R44 NS060199 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to the use of selective aquaporin inhibitors, e.g., of aquaporin-4 or aquaporin-2, e.g., certain phenylbenzamide compounds, for the prophylaxis, treatment and control of aquaporin-mediated conditions, e.g., diseases of water imbalance, for example edema (particularly edema of the brain and spinal cord, e.g., following trauma or ischemic stroke, as well as the edema associated with glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and lupus cerebritis, as well as edema consequent to microgravity and/or radiation exposure, as well as edema consequent to invasive central nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation, as well as retinal edema), as well as hyponatremia and excess fluid retention, and diseases such as epilepsy, retinal ischemia and other diseases of the eye associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, and neuromyelitis optica, as well as migraines, as well as to novel assays for identifying aquaporin inhibitors.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Aquaporins are cell membrane proteins that act as molecular water channels to mediate the flow of water in and out of the cells. While there is some degree of passive diffusion or osmosis of water across cell membranes, the rapid and selective transport of water in and out of cells involves aquaporins. These water channels selectively conduct water molecules in and out of the cell, while blocking the passage of ions and other solutes, thereby preserving the membrane potential of the cell. Aquaporins are found in virtually all life forms, from bacteria to plants to animals. In humans, they are found in cells throughout the body.

Cerebral edema (CE) is a major contributor to stroke damage, as it can result in increased intracerebral pressure (ICP), a corresponding decrease in cerebral perfusion, and potentially permanent or fatal brain damage. Edema also contributes to CNS damage in, for example, traumatic brain and spinal cord injury, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and lupus cerebritis. Patients surviving the period of maximal ICP, usually the three days following a stroke or traumatic brain injury, are likely to survive. Unfortunately, only a few treatment options are available for CE, and these are of limited efficacy.

Hyponatremia, characterized by serum sodium levels ≤135 mM, is the most common form of electrolyte imbalance with hospitals nationwide reporting an incidence of 15-20%. The associated fluid retention is symptomatic of heart failure (HF), liver cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH). Various diuretics are used to treat congestion associated with HF. By inhibiting the Na/K/Cl cotransporter in the thick ascending loop of Henle, loop diuretics cause natriuresis by decreasing Na⁺ and Cl⁻ reabsorption from the urine. An alternative therapy for hyponatremia is the use of vasopressin receptor antagonists, which inhibit water reabsorption by inhibiting the vasopressin-induced trafficking of AQP2. Unfortunately, both loop diuretics and vasopressin receptor antagonists act indirectly toward a desired physiological outcome. An ideal drug would block water reabsorption directly, thus minimizing potential side-effects caused by upstream effectors, but no such drugs are currently known.

Epilepsy is a brain disorder characterized by recurrent seizures. Seizures occur because of disturbed brain activity resulting in some degree of temporary brain dysfunction. Seizures may cause uncontrollable shaking and loss of consciousness but, more commonly, a person experiencing a seizure stops moving or becomes unaware of what is happening. Anticonvulsants may be used to treat epilepsy, however anticonvulsants are not effective for all people with epilepsy.

Ischemia is a condition characterized by an interruption or inadequate supply of blood to tissues. Retinal ischemia occurs due to a deficient supply of blood to the retina. Vascular occlusion, glaucoma, and diabetic retinopathy are associated with retinal ischemia and can produce retinal edema and ganglion cell death leading to visual impairment and blindness. AQP4 is expressed in the Müller cells in the retina. Due to relatively ineffectual treatment, retinal ischemia remains a common cause of visual impairment and blindness.

Myocardial ischemia is a condition caused by a blockage or constriction of one more of the coronary arteries, such as can occur with atherosclerotic plaque occlusion or rupture. Myocardial infarction, a heart attack, occurs when myocardial ischemia exceeds a critical threshold and overwhelms myocardial cellular repair mechanisms designed to maintain normal operating function and homeostasis. Myocardial infarction remains a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Compounds effective in treating myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, and congestive heart failure would be useful pharmaceuticals.

Phenylbenzamide compounds are known as pharmaceuticals. Phenylbenzamides include compounds such niclosamide (5-chloro-N-(2-chloro-4-nitrophenyl)-2-hydroxybenzamide), an antihemintic agent used to treat tapeworms, but are not known to have any effect on aquaporins. US Patent Publication US 2010/0274051 A1 (the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference) describe certain phenylbenzamides as being useful to inhibit NF-κB via selective inhibition of IKK-β, while U.S. Pat. No. 7,626,042 (also incorporated herein by reference) discloses O-acyl derivatives of such compounds, while U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,655 (also incorporated herein by reference) describe certain phenylbenzamides as being useful to treat allergic diseases. These patent applications, however, do not disclose anything about cerebral edema or water imbalance (aquaresis) or aquaporins.

In a 2004 paper, a group purportedly investigated the efficacy of N-(3,5-Bis-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-5-chloro-2-hydroxy-benzamide in IκB phosphorylation blockade in a rat myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury model. Onai, Y. et al., “Inhibition of IκB Phosphorylation in Cardiomyocytes Attenuates Myocardial Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury,” Cardiovascular Research, 2004, 63, 51-59. The group reported some activity. However, subsequently, the activity effect could not be confirmed and accordingly N-(3,5-Bis-trifluoromethyl-phenyl)-5-chloro-2-hydroxy-benzamide was not pursued for this indication in humans.

Prior to this invention, there are have been no known specific, validated inhibitors of aquaporins, for example AQP4 or AQP2. Certain antiepileptic or sulfonamide drugs (e.g., acetylsulfanilamide, acetazolamide, 6-ethoxy-benzothiazole-2-sulfonamide, topiramate, zonisamide, phenytoin, lamotrigine, and sumatriptan) were at one point reported to be possible inhibitors of AQP4, but this later proved to be incorrect. Yang, et al., Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry (2008) 16: 7489-7493. No direct inhibitors of AQP2 have been reported. The search for therapeutically useful aquaporin inhibitors has been hampered by a lack of effective high throughput screening assays, as well as by a lack of highly selective inhibitors to develop and validate the assays and to serve as positive controls or binding competitors.

There is a great need for improved approaches to treating and controlling diseases of water imbalance, such as edema, for example cerebral edema, and water retention and hyponatremia, as well as diseases such as epilepsy, retinal ischemia, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, and neuromyelitis optica, as well as migraines.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides the use of selective aquaporin inhibitors, e.g., of aquaporin-4 or aquaporin-2 for the prophylaxis, treatment and control of aquaporin-mediated conditions, e.g., diseases of water imbalance, for example edema (particularly edema of the brain and spinal cord, e.g., following trauma or ischemic stroke, as well as the edema associated with glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, and lupus cerebritis, as well as the edema consequent to microgravity and/or radiation exposure, as well as edema consequent to invasive central nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation, as well as retinal edema, as well as brain swelling consequent to cardiac arrest, e.g., related to the development of the metabolic acidosis (e.g. lactic acidosis) due to hypoxia before the resuscitation period), as well as hyponatremia and excess fluid retention, as well as diseases such as epilepsy, retinal ischemia and other diseases of the eye associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure or tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, and neuromyelitis optica, as well as migraines.

The invention further provides the use of certain phenylbenzamides to inhibit aquaporins, particularly AQP4 and AQP2.

The invention provides, inter alia, methods of treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin, e.g., diseases or conditions of water imbalance and other diseases, for example,

-   -   edema of the brain or spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g.         cerebral edema consequent to head trauma, ischemic stroke,         glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures,         infections, metabolic disorders, hypoxia (including general         systemic hypoxia and hypoxia due to cardiac arrest), water         intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic         ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease,         lupus cerebritis, or invasive central nervous system procedures,         e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap,         aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation or, e.g., spinal cord         edema consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord         compression; or cerebral and/or optical nerve edema consequent         to microgravity and/or radiation exposure; or     -   retinal edema; or     -   hyponatremia or excessive fluid retention, e.g., consequent to         heart failure (HF), liver cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or         syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion         (SIADH); or     -   epilepsy, retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye         associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or         tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial         ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial         hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, or neuromyelitis         optica;     -   or migraines,         comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an         effective amount of an aquaporin inhibitor, e.g., an inhibitor         of AQP2 or AQP4, for example a phenylbenzamide, e.g.,         niclosamide or a compound of formula (I) as described in US         2010/0274051 A1 or U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,655, e.g., a compound of         general formulae (I), (I−1), (I-2), (I-3), and (I-4) as set         forth therein, e.g., selected from Compound Nos. 1-223 as set         forth in US 2010/0274051 or Compound Nos. 301-555 as set forth         in U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,655, or a compound of formula (I) as         described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,626,042, e.g., selected from         Compound Nos. 1-151 as set forth therein; for example a compound         of formula 1a:

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅ are selected from H, halo,         halogenated C₁₋₄ alkyl (e.g., trifluoromethyl), and cyano; and         R₆ is selected from H and physiologically hydrolysable and         acceptable acyl groups,     -   in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form.

The invention further provides high throughput assays for identification of specific aquaporins, comprising measuring the response of an aquaporin-expressing cell population versus a control cell population to a hypertonic or hypotonic solution in the presence or absence of a test compound.

The invention further provides a compound of formula

Further areas of applicability of the present invention will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating the preferred embodiment of the invention, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The present invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description and the accompanying drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 depicts results of aquaporin-4 (FIG. 1A) and aquaporin-2 (FIG. 1B) mediated cell volume change assay, and the inhibitory effect of Compound 3 (compound of formula 1a where R₁, R₃ and R₅ are each chloro, and R₂, R₄ and R₆ are H) against these aquaporins.

FIG. 2 depicts specificity of Compound 3 towards AQP-1, AQP-2, AQP-4-M1, AQP-4-M23, and AQP-5.

FIG. 3 depicts a Hummel-Dryer style assay for [3H]-labeled Compound 4 (compound of formula 1a where R₁, R₃ and R₅ are each trifluoromethyl, and R₂, R₄ and R₆ are H) binding to purified AQP4b.

FIG. 4 depicts percent survival curves for the water toxicity mouse model using 0.76 mg/kg Compound 1 (compound of formula 1a where R₁ is chloro, R₃ and R₅ are each trifluoromethyl, and R₂, R₄ and R₆ are H).

FIG. 5 depicts inhibition of cerebral edema formation in a mouse water toxicity model determined by brain water content using Compound 1.

FIG. 6 depicts inhibition of cerebral edema formation by Compound 1 in the mouse water toxicity model by MRI brain volume analysis, with n=14 mice/treatment. A time course of edema formation is shown comparing no drug vs. Compound 1 at 0.76 mg/kg. The first time point at 5.67 min coincides with the scan slice at the middle of the brain during the first post-injection scan. Other time points are placed in a similar manner. The data is fitted to a single exponential equation: V/V ₀ =V _(i) +dV _(max)(1−e ^((−kt)));

where V/V₀=relative brain volume, V_(i)=initial relative brain volume, dV_(max)=maximum change in relative brain volume, k=first order rate constant (min′), and t=time in minutes.

FIG. 7 depicts the calcein fluorescence end-point assay used for high throughput screening.

FIG. 8 depicts hit validation using the Cell Bursting Aquaporin Assay; inset shows the structure of Compound 3.

FIG. 9 depicts reduction in intracranial pressure (ICP) in the mouse water toxicity model with Compound 1 at 0.76 mg/kg.

FIG. 10 depicts plasma and serum levels of Compound 1 converted from Compound 5 (compound of formula 1a where R₁ is chloro, R₃ and R₅ are each trifluoromethyl, R₂ and R₄ are H, and R₆ is P(═O)(O)₂ in disodium salt form).

FIG. 11 depicts mouse middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) model of ischemic stroke.

FIG. 12 depicts relative change in hemispheric brain volume in the mouse middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) model.

FIG. 13 depicts neurological outcome following MCAo in mice treated with saline (no drug, •) or Compound 5 (o).

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The following description of the preferred embodiments is merely exemplary in nature and is in no way intended to limit the invention, its application, or uses.

Expression of Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) is upregulated in animal models of trauma, stroke and water intoxication as well as around human malignant brain tumors. Aquaporin-4 (AQP4) has been shown to play a critical role in the development of cerebral and spinal cord edema. AQP4 provides the primary route for water movement across the BBB and glia limitans. AQP4 knockout mice, without the APQ4 gene, have improved survival compared to wild-type mice in models of ischemic stroke, water toxicity, bacterial meningitis, and spinal cord compression.

Cerebral edema (CE) is generally divided into 2 major categories: vasogenic and cytotoxic. Vasogenic cerebral edema may occur when a breach in the blood-brain barrier (BBB) allows water and solutes to diffuse into the brain. It has been reported that AQP4-null mice have increased brain edema in a model of subarachnoid hemorrhage, suggesting that AQP4 may be required for the clearance of water collected in intercellular space. In contrast, cytotoxic cerebral edema may be initiated by ischemia which results in reduced plasma osmolality rather than a disrupted BBB. Ischemia may to a drop in ATP levels which is thought to slow the Na—K ATPase pump resulting in an uptake of Na⁺ and Cl⁻ through leakage pathways. The net effect may be a cellular osmotic imbalance, drawing H₂O into cells—astrocytes more so than neurons—and leading to increased ICP. Mouse models for ischemic stroke, water toxicity, bacterial meningitis, and spinal-cord compression fall into this category. In these models, AQP4-null mice have reduced CE pointing to AQP4 as the central pathway for water movement into the brain during the formation of cytotoxic CE. However, cytotoxic and vasogenic edema are not sharply divided categories; an injury that initially causes cytotoxic edema may be followed later, e.g., within the next hours to days, by vasogenic edema. This may suggest different treatments for cerebral edema at different times.

It has been reported that propensity to epileptic seizures is related to relative cellular and extracellular space (ECS) volume. Hyperexcitability and increased epileptiform activity results from hypotonic exposure which decreases ECS volume, while attenuated epileptiform activity results from hyperosmolar medium. Furosemide, which blocks seizure-induced cell swelling, has been reported to inhibit epileptiform activity in vitro and in vivo. AQP4 knockout mice were reported to have lower seizure susceptibility to the convulsant pentylenetetrazol and a greater electrographic seizure threshold when seizures were induced by electrical stimulation in the hippocampus. It was also reported that AQP4 knockout mice had more prolonged hippocampal-stimulation evoked seizures compared to wild type mice.

AQP4 is expressed in the Müller cells in the retina. Studies have implicated Müller cells in the pathogenesis of retinal injury after ischemia. It has been reported that AQP4 deletion in mice conferred significant preservation of retinal function and architecture after retinal ischemia.

AQP4 is reportedly found in mammalian hearts. It has been reported that AQP4 expression in the human heart is present at both the mRNA and protein level. Water accumulates in the myocardium as a result of ischemia, when ischemic tissue becomes hyperosmolar and attracts water from the capillary lumen. The water is transported into the myocardial cells, for example, into cardiomyocytes. Reperfusion delivers normoosmolar blood to the hyperosmolar cells, which leads to further cell swelling, which may even involve cells outside the risk area. This water accumulation leads to a pronounced depression of cardiac function, and aggravates effects of shortage in oxygen and nutrient supply. Myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury refers to damage caused by ischemia followed by reperfusion in the heart. It has been reported that AQP4 knockout mice had reduced infarct size after both ex vivo ischemia-reperfusion and after in vivo ischemia without reperfusion. It was concluded that the AQP4 knockout genotype conferred increased tolerance to ischemic injury.

Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a neuroinflammatory demyelinating disease that primarily affects optic nerve and spinal cord. A feature of NMO is the presence of serum antibodies directed against extracellular epitopes on AQP4. It has been reported that most, if not all, NMO patients are seropositive for AQP4 autoantibodies (NMO-IgG). It is thought that NMO-IgG binding to AQP4 in astrocytes initiates an inflammatory cascade and the consequent neuroinflammation and myelin loss produce neurological deficits. Blocking binding of those antibodies to AQP4 could prevent the initiation of the inflammatory cascade.

In one embodiment, the invention provides methods of treating edema mediated by aquaporin, e.g., AQP4, wherein the edema is consequent to hypoxia, e.g., general systemic hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused by an interruption of blood perfusion, for example wherein the edema is cerebral edema consequent to hypoxia caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or other interruption of blood perfusion to the brain, or wherein the edema is cardiac edema consequent to cardiac ischemia or other interruption of blood flow to the heart. Hypoxia can lead to development of metabolic acidosis (e.g. lactic acidosis), which in turn leads to edema, and the edema itself can then reduce blood perfusion, leading to cell death and poorer outcomes, particularly in tissues where swelling is physically constrained, for example within the skull or within the pericardium. This hypoxia is believed to be why, for example, patients who have been rescued from cardiac arrest may subsequently exhibit brain swelling, as well as damage to the cardiac tissue. Blocking aquaporin channels, e.g., AQP4, e.g., by administering an aquaporin-inhibiting compound as described herein, inhibits or controls this edema, thereby limiting further damage to the affected tissue.

Aquaporin-2 (AQP2) is the primary route of water movement at the collecting duct in the kidney. Blocking this water channel would lower water reabsorption without incurring electrolyte imbalances or interfering with vasopressin receptor-mediated signaling. Evidence that an AQP2 blocker would not produce electrolyte imbalances, and instead be an effective treatment for hyponatremia, comes from patients with diabetes insipidus who lack functional AQP2. They exhibit chronic aquaresis but—if normal hydration is maintained—do not demonstrate any other consequence of their long term loss of AQP2 function.

The invention thus provides the use of aquaporin inhibitors in controlling diseases or conditions of water imbalance, including edema, particularly edema of the brain and spinal cord, e.g., following trauma or ischemic stroke, as well as the edema associated with glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, hypoxia, and diabetic ketoacidosis by inhibiting water uptake through the BBB, and also useful in treating and controlling hyponatremia and excessive fluid retention, by inhibiting water uptake at the kidneys. This invention also provides the use of aquaporin inhibitors in controlling diseases or conditions including epilepsy, retinal ischemia and other diseases of the eye associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, neuromyelitis optica, and migraines.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 1) of treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effective amount of a phenylbenzamide compound, e.g., an effective amount of niclosamide (5-chloro-N-(2-chloro-4-nitrophenyl)-2-hydroxybenzamide) or a compound of Formula I:

wherein X represents a connecting group whose number of atoms in the main chain is 2 to 5 (said connecting group may be substituted), A represents a hydrogen atom or an acyl group which may be substituted, or a C₁ to C₆ alkyl group which may be substituted, or A may bind to connecting group X to form a cyclic structure which may be substituted, E represents an aryl group which may be substituted or a heteroaryl group which may be substituted, ring Z represents an arene which may have one or more substituents in addition to the group represented by formula —O-A wherein A has the same meaning as that defined above and the group represented by formula —X-E wherein each of X and E has the same meaning as that defined above, or a heteroarene which may have one or more substituents in addition to the group represented by formula —O-A wherein A has the same meaning as that defined above and the group represented by formula —X-E wherein each of X and E has the same meaning as that defined above; in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, including solvate or hydrate forms; e.g.

-   1.1. Method 1 wherein the compound of Formula I is selected from the     compounds of formula (I) as described in US 2010/0274051 A1 or U.S.     Pat. No. 7,700,655, e.g., a compound of general formulas (I), (I−1),     (I-2), (I-3), and (I-4) as set forth therein, e.g., selected from     Compound Nos. 1-223 as set forth in US 2010/0274051 or Compound Nos.     301-555 as set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,655. -   1.2. Method 1.1 wherein the compound of Formula I is selected from     the free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt forms of: -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-fluoro-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-cyano-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(1,1,2,2,2-pentafluoroethyl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-(2,2-dicyanoethen-1-yl)-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-ethynyl-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(phenylethynyl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-4-hydroxybiphenyl-3-carboxamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(3-thienyl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(1-pyrrolyl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(2-methylthiazol-4-yl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(2-pyridyl)benzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-dimethylsulfamoyl-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxy-5-(pyrrole-1-sulfonyl)benzamide, -   N-[2,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-chloro-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   N-(2,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl-5-bromo-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   2-acetoxy-N-[2,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-chlorobenzamide, -   2-acetoxy-N-[3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-5-chlorobenzamide, -   5-chloro-N-[2-fluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-N-[2-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-N-[2-chloro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-bromo-N-[2-chloro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   2-acetoxy-5-chloro-N-[2-chloro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-N-[3-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-bromo-N-[3-bromo-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-N-[3-fluoro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-N-[4-fluoro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-bromo-N-[4-chloro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2-nitro-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-bromo-N-[4-cyano-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2-methyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2-methyl-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   2-hydroxy-5-methyl-N-[2-methyl-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[4-methyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   2-hydroxy-5-methyl-N-[4-methyl-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-bromo-2-hydroxy-N-[2-methoxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2-methoxy-5-trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-bromo-2-hydroxy-N-[3-methoxy-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[4-methoxy-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2-methylsulfanyl-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2-(1-pyrrolidino)-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-chloro-2-hydroxy-N-[2″-morpholino-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]benzamide, -   5-bromo-N-[5-bromo-4-(trifluoromethyl)thiazol-2-yl]-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-chloro-N-{5-cyano-4-[(1,1-dimethyl)ethyl]thiazol-2-yl}-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   5-bromo-N-{5-cyano-4-[(1,1-dimethyl)ethyl]thiazol-2-yl}-2-hydroxybenzamide, -   2-(5-bromo-2-hydroxybenzoyl)amino-4     (trifluoromethyl)thiazol-5-carboxylic acid ethylester. -   1.3. Method 1 wherein A is C₁₋₄ acyl (e.g. acetyl). -   1.4. Method 1 wherein the compound is a compound of formula I as     described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,626,042, for example of formula I-1,     e.g. any of Compound Nos. 1-151 as described in U.S. Pat. No.     7,626,042. -   1.5. Method 1.4 wherein A is C₁₋₄ acyl (e.g. acetyl). -   1.6. Method 1 wherein A is the residue of an amino acid. -   1.7. Method 1 wherein A is a 5 to 6-membered non-aromatic     heterocyclic ring-carbonyl group, for example a 5 to 6-membered     non-aromatic heterocyclic ring-carbonyl group which comprises at     least one nitrogen atom as ring-constituting atoms (ring forming     atoms) of said heterocyclic ring and binds to the carbonyl group at     the nitrogen atom, e.g., wherein said 5 to 6-membered non-aromatic     heterocyclic ring is selected from 1-pyrrolidinyl group, piperidino     group, morpholino group, and 1-piperazinyl group, and said     heterocyclic ring may be substituted with one or more substituents,     e.g., independently selected from an alkyl group, an     alkyl-oxy-carbonyl group, and a carboxy group; for example wherein A     is (morpholin-4-yl)carbonyl. -   1.8. Method 1 wherein A is a N,N-di-substituted carbamoyl group,     wherein two substituents of said carbamoyl group may combine to each     other, together with the nitrogen atom to which they bind, to form a     nitrogen-containing heterocyclic group which may be substituted. -   1.9. Method 1 wherein A is (morpholin-4-yl)carbonyl. -   1.10. Method 1 wherein A is a phosphono group, which may be     substituted, e.g., dibenzyl phosphono, or unsubstituted. -   1.11. Method 1 wherein the compound of Formula I is a compound of     formula 1a:

-   -   wherein R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅ are selected from H, halo,         halogenated C₁₋₄ alkyl (e.g., trifluoromethyl), and cyano; and         R₆ is selected from H and physiologically hydrolysable and         acceptable acyl, e.g., wherein R₆ is A as hereinbefore defined         in any of Methods 1-1.9;     -   in free, pharmaceutically acceptable salt form.

-   1.12. Method 1.11 wherein the compound of Formula I is a compound of     formula 1a wherein R₁ is selected from trifluoromethyl, chloro,     fluoro, and bromo; R₃ and R₅ are the same or different and selected     from trifluoromethyl, chloro, fluoro, and bromo; and R₂ and R₄ are     both H.

-   1.13. Method 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a compound of     formula 1a wherein R₁ is selected from chloro and bromo; R₃ and R₅     are both trifluoromethyl; and R₂, R₄ and R₆ are all H, e.g., wherein     the compound of formula 1a is selected from:

-   1.14. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein R₆ is H. -   1.15. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein R₆ is acetyl. -   1.16. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a wherein R₁ is selected from chloro and bromo;     R₃ and R₅ are both trifluoromethyl; and R₂ and R₄ are H and R₆ is     acetyl, e.g., wherein the compound of formula 1a is selected from:

-   1.17. Method 1.13 wherein the compound of formula 1a is Compound 1

-   1.18. Method 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a compound of     formula 1a wherein R₁, R₃ and R₅ are each chloro, and R₂, R₄ and R₆     are each H (Compound 3). -   1.19. Method 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a compound of     formula 1a wherein R₁, R₃ and R₅ are each trifluoromethyl, and R₂,     R₄ and R₆ are each H (Compound 4). -   1.20. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a, and R₆ is C₁₋₄ acyl (e.g. acetyl). -   1.21. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a, and R₆ is the residue of an amino acid. -   1.22. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a, and R₆ is a 5 to 6-membered non-aromatic     heterocyclic ring-carbonyl group, for example a 5 to 6-membered     non-aromatic heterocyclic ring-carbonyl group which comprises at     least one nitrogen atom as ring-constituting atoms (ring forming     atoms) of said heterocyclic ring and binds to the carbonyl group at     the nitrogen atom, e.g., wherein said 5 to 6-membered non-aromatic     heterocyclic ring is selected from 1-pyrrolidinyl group, piperidino     group, morpholino group, and 1-piperazinyl group, and said     heterocyclic ring may be substituted with one or more substituents,     e.g., independently selected from an alkyl group, an     alkyl-oxy-carbonyl group, and a carboxy group; for example wherein     R₆ is (morpholin-4-yl)carbonyl. -   1.23. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a, and R₆ is a N,N-di-substituted carbamoyl     group, wherein two substituents of said carbamoyl group may combine     to each other, together with the nitrogen atom to which they bind,     to form a nitrogen-containing heterocyclic group which may be     substituted. -   1.24. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a, and R₆ is a (morpholin-4-yl)carbonyl group. -   1.25. Method 1.11 or 1.12 wherein the compound of Formula I is a     compound of formula 1a, and R₆ is a phosphono group, which may be     substituted, e.g. dibenzylphosphono, or unsubstituted. -   1.26. Method 1.25 wherein the compound of formula 1a is selected     from:

-   1.27. Method 1.26 wherein the compound of formula 1a is Compound 5

-   1.28. Method 1 wherein the phenylbenzamide compound is niclosamide     or the compound shown below

-   1.29. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the aquaporin is AQP4. -   1.30. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated     or controlled is selected from edema, e.g. edema of the brain or     spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g. cerebral edema consequent to     head trauma, ischemic stroke, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain     sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, water     intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic     ketoacidosis or, e.g., spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema     consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression. -   1.31. Method 1.30 further comprising a treatment selected from one     or more of the following: optimal head and neck positioning to     facilitate venous outflow, e.g. head elevation 30°; avoidance of     dehydration; systemic hypotension; maintenance of normothermia or     hypothermia; aggressive measures; osmotherapy, e.g., using mannitol     or hypertonic saline; hyperventilation; therapeutic pressor therapy     to enhance cerebral perfusion; administration of barbiturates to     reduce cerebral metabolism (CMO₂); hemicraniectomy; administration     of aspirin; administration of amantadine; intravenous thrombolysis     (e.g. using rtPA); mechanical clot removal; angioplasty; and/or     stents. -   1.32. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated     risk of cerebral edema, e.g., due to head trauma, ischemic stroke,     glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizure,     infection, metabolic disorder, water intoxication, hepatic failure,     hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis. -   1.33. Method 1.30 wherein the patient has suffered a stroke, head     injury, or spinal injury. -   1.34. Method 1.33 wherein the patient has suffered a stroke, head     injury or spinal injury within 12 hours, e.g. within 6 hours,     preferably within 3 hours of commencing treatment. -   1.35. Method 1.30 wherein the patient is at elevated risk of     suffering a stroke, head injury or spinal injury, e.g., in combat or     in an athletic competition. -   1.36. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the patient already has     cerebral edema. -   1.37. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated     or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a stroke or a     traumatic brain injury. -   1.38. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated     or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a middle cerebral     artery stroke. -   1.39. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated     or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to closed head trauma. -   1.40. Any of Methods 1-1.32 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an epileptic seizure. -   1.41. Any of Methods 1-1.32 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an infection. -   1.42. Any of Methods 1-1.32 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a metabolic disorder. -   1.43. Any of Methods 1-1.32 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to glioma. -   1.44. Any of Methods 1-1.32 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to meningitis, acute     mountain sickness, or water intoxication. -   1.45. Any of Methods 1-1.32 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to hepatic failure, hepatic     encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis. -   1.46. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an abscess. -   1.47. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to eclampsia. -   1.48. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to Creutzfeldt-Jakob     disease. -   1.49. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to lupus cerebritis. -   1.50. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is edema consequent to hypoxia, e.g., general systemic     hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused by an interruption of blood perfusion,     for example wherein the edema is cerebral edema consequent to     hypoxia caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or other interruption of     blood perfusion to the brain, or wherein the edema is cardiac edema     consequent to cardiac ischemia or other interruption of blood flow     to the heart. -   1.51. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral and/or optic nerve edema consequent to     microgravity and/or radiation exposure, e.g., exposure from space     flight or from working with radioactive materials or from working in     radioactive areas. -   1.52. Any of Methods 1-1.31 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an invasive central     nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot     removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation. -   1.53. Method 1.51 or 1.52 wherein the patient is at elevated risk of     edema, e.g., due to microgravity and/or radiation exposure,     neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm     repair, or deep brain stimulation. -   1.54. Method 1.51 or 1.52 wherein the patient already has edema. -   1.55. Any of Methods 1, et seq. wherein the edema is cytotoxic     cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema. -   1.56. Any of Methods 1-1.45 or 1.50 wherein the edema is cytotoxic     cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema. -   1.57. Any of Methods 1-1.30 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent     to a spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression. -   1.58. Method 1.57 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled     is spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord compression. -   1.59. Any of Methods 1-1.30 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is retinal edema. -   1.60. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is epilepsy. -   1.61. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye     associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue     hydration. -   1.62. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is myocardial ischemia. -   1.63. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury. -   1.64. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is myocardial infarction. -   1.65. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is myocardial hypoxia. -   1.66. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is congestive heart failure. -   1.67. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is sepsis. -   1.68. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is a migraine. -   1.69. Any of Methods 1-1.28 wherein the aquaporin is AQP2. -   1.70. Any of Methods 1-1.28 or 1.69 wherein the condition to be     treated is hyponatremia or excessive fluid retention, e.g.,     consequent to heart failure (HF), for example congestive heart     failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or syndrome of     inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH). -   1.71. Any of Methods 1-1.28 or 1.69-1.70 further comprising one or     more of restriction of dietary sodium, fluid and/or alcohol; and/or     administration of one or more diuretics, vasopressin receptor     antagonists, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors,     aldosterone inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),     beta-adrenergic antagonists (beta-blockers), and/or digoxin. -   1.72. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or the     compound of Formula I or formula 1a inhibits aquaporin activity,     e.g., AQP2 and/or AQP4 activity, by at least 50% at concentrations     of 10 micromolar or less, for example inhibits APQ2 and/or AQP4     activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or less     in an aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is active     in any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra. -   1.73. Any of Methods 1-1.29 wherein the condition to be treated or     controlled is neuromyelitis optica. -   1.74. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or the     compound of Formula I or formula 1a is administered orally. -   1.75. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or the     compound of Formula I or formula 1a is administered parenterally. -   1.76. Method 1.75 wherein the niclosamide or the compound of Formula     I or formula 1a is administered intravenously. -   1.77. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the patient is human. -   1.78. Any of Method 1, et seq. wherein the onset of action of any of     the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 is fairly rapid.

The invention further provides a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, for use in treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin, e.g., in any of Methods 1, 1.1, et seq.

The invention further provides a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin, e.g., for use in any of Methods 1, 1.1, et seq.

The invention further provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier for use in treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin, e.g., in any of Methods 1, 1.1, et seq.

Phenylbenzamides, e.g. of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, may exist in free or salt form, e.g., as acid addition salts. In this specification unless otherwise indicated language such as “compound of Formula I or formula 1a” or “compounds of Formula I or formula 1a” is to be understood as embracing the compounds in any form, for example free base or acid addition salt form. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are known in the art and include salts which are physiologically acceptable at the dosage amount and form to be administered, for example hydrochlorides.

Examples of the acyl group include, for example, formyl, glyoxyloyl group, thioformyl group, carbamoyl group, thiocarbamoyl group, sulfamoyl group, sulfinamoyl group, carboxy group, sulfo group, phosphono group, and groups represented by the following formulas:

wherein R^(a1) and R^(b1) may be the same or different and represent a hydrocarbon group or a heterocyclic group, or R^(a1) and R^(b1) combine to each other, together with the nitrogen atom to which they bind, to form a cyclic amino group. Acyl includes physiologically hydrolysable and acceptable acyl group. Examples of the acyl group of “an acyl group which may be substituted” as used herein, e.g., in relation to “A” include similar groups to the acyl group in the aforementioned definition. “A” is a group selected from the following substituent group ω: [Substiutent group ω] a hydrocarbon-carbonyl group which may be substituted, a heterocyclic ring-carbonyl group which may be substituted, a hydrocarbon-oxy-carbonyl group which may be substituted, a hydrocarbon-sulfonyl group which may be substituted, a sulfamoyl group which may be substituted, a sulfo group which may be substituted, a phosphono group which may be substituted, and a carbamoyl group which may be substituted. By the term “physiologically hydrolysable and acceptable acyl” as used herein, e.g., in relation to “A” or “R₆” in compounds of Formula I or formula 1a, is meant a residue of an acid, for example a carboxylic acid, a carbamic acid or a phosphoric acid (e.g., optionally substituted carbonyl such as acetyl or the residue of an amino acid, optionally substituted carbamoyl, e.g. (morpholin-4-yl)carbonyl, or optionally substituted phosphono e.g., dibenzylphosphono), linked to an oxygen, e.g., as depicted in Formula 1 or formula 1a above, e.g. to form an ester or phosphoester with a compound of Formula I or formula 1a, which is capable of hydrolysis from said oxygen under physiological conditions to yield an acid which is physiologically tolerable at doses to be administered, together with the corresponding hydroxy compound of Formula I or formula 1a wherein A or R₆ is H. As will be appreciated the term thus embraces conventional pharmaceutical prodrug forms, although it is not necessarily required that the compounds must be hydrolyzed in order to be active. The acyl compounds may be prepared by conventional means, e.g., by acylation of a compound of Formula 1 or formula 1a, wherein A or R₆ is H, with the desired acid or acid halide. Examples of acylated compounds and methods of making them are provided, e.g., in US 2010/0274051 A1, U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,655, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,626,042, each incorporated herein by reference.

The term “patient” includes human or non-human (i.e., animal) patient. In a particular embodiment, the invention encompasses both human and nonhuman. In another embodiment, the invention encompasses nonhuman. In another embodiment, the term encompasses human.

The term “fairly rapid” with respect to onset of action means that the time it takes after a compound is administered for a response to be observed is 30 minutes or less, for example 20 minutes or less, for example or 15 minutes or less, for example 10 minutes or less, for example 5 minutes or less, for example 1 minute or less.

Phenylbenzamides, e.g. of Formula 1 or formula 1a as hereinbefore described for use in the methods of the invention may be used as a sole therapeutic agent, but may also be used in combination or for co-administration with other active agents, for example in conjunction with conventional therapies for cerebral edema, stroke, traumatic brain injury, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, infection, metabolic disorder, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, lupus cerebritis, edema of the optic nerve, hyponatremia, fluid retention, epilepsy, retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, neuromyelitis optica, or migraines.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 2) of treating or controlling edema, e.g. edema of the brain or spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g. cerebral edema consequent to head trauma, ischemic stroke, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections, metabolic disorders, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, diabetic ketoacidosis, abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, or lupus cerebritis, as well as edema consequent to microgravity and/or radiation exposure, as well as edema consequent to invasive central nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation or, e.g., retinal edema or, e.g., spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression, comprising administering an effective amount of an inhibitor of AQP4, e.g, a compound binding to AQP4, to a patient in need thereof, e.g., wherein the inhibitor of AQP4 is selected from phenylbenzamides, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 above, for example

2.

-   -   2.1. Method 2 further comprising a treatment selected from one         or more of the following: optimal head and neck positioning to         facilitate venous outflow, e.g. head elevation 30°; avoidance of         dehydration; systemic hypotension; maintenance of normothermia         or hypothermia; aggressive measures; osmotherapy, e.g., using         mannitol or hypertonic saline; hyperventilation; therapeutic         pressor therapy to enhance cerebral perfusion; administration of         barbiturates to reduce of cerebral metabolism (CMO₂);         hemicraniectomy; administration of aspirin; administration of         amantadine; intravenous thrombolysis (e.g. using rtPA);         mechanical clot removal; angioplasty; and/or stents.     -   2.2. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the patient is at elevated risk of         cerebral edema, e.g., due to head trauma, ischemic stroke,         glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness epileptic seizure,         infection, metabolic disorder, water intoxication, hepatic         failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.     -   2.3. Method 2, 2.1, or 2.2 wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury, or spinal injury.     -   2.4. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury or spinal injury within 12 hours, e.g.         within 6 hours, preferably within 3 hours of commencing         treatment.     -   2.5. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of suffering a stroke, head injury or spinal injury, e.g.,         in combat or in an athletic competition.     -   2.6. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the patient already has         cerebral edema.     -   2.7. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a stroke         or a traumatic brain injury.     -   2.8. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a middle         cerebral artery stroke.     -   2.9. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a closed         head trauma.     -   2.10. Any of Methods 2-2.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an epileptic         seizure.     -   2.11. Any of Methods 2-2.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an infection.     -   2.12. Any of Methods 2-2.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a metabolic         disorder.     -   2.13. Any of Methods 2-2.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to glioma.     -   2.14. Any of Methods 2-2.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to meningitis, acute         mountain sickness, or water intoxication.     -   2.15. Any of Methods 2-2.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to hepatic failure,         hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.     -   2.16. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an abscess.     -   2.17. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to eclampsia.     -   2.18. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to Creutzfeldt-Jakob         disease.     -   2.19. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to lupus cerebritis.     -   2.20. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral and/or optic nerve edema consequent to         microgravity exposure, e.g., exposure from space flight or from         working with radioactive materials or from working in         radioactive areas.     -   2.21. Method 2 or 2.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to invasive central         nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot         removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   2.22. Method 2.20 or 2.21 wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of edema, e.g., due to microgravity and/or radiation         exposure, neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap,         aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   2.23. Method 2.20 or 2.21 wherein the patient already has edema.     -   2.24. Any of Methods 2, et seq. wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   2.25. Any of Methods 2-2.15, et seq. wherein the edema is         cytotoxic cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral         edema.     -   2.26. Method 2 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent to         spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   2.27. Method 2.26 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord         compression.     -   2.28. Method 2 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is retinal edema.     -   2.29. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the AQP4 inhibitor         inhibits AQP4 activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10         micromolar or less, for example inhibits AQP4 activity by at         least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or less in an         aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is active in         any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   2.30. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the duration of treatment         with an AQP4 inhibitor is less than 21 days, e.g., less than 2         weeks, e.g., one week or less.     -   2.31. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the AQP4 inhibitor is         administered orally.     -   2.32. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the AQP4 inhibitor is         administered parenterally.     -   2.33. Method 2.32 wherein the AQP4 inhibitor is administered         intravenously.     -   2.34. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the patient is human.     -   2.35. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the onset of action of         any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 is fairly         rapid.     -   2.36. Any of Method 2, et seq. wherein the edema is consequent         to hypoxia, e.g., general systemic hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused         by an interruption of blood perfusion, for example wherein the         edema is cerebral edema consequent to hypoxia caused by cardiac         arrest or other interruption of blood perfusion to the brain.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 3) of treating or controlling a condition selected from hyponatremia and excessive fluid retention, e.g., consequent to heart failure (HF), for example congestive heart failure, liver cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) comprising administering an effective amount of an inhibitor of AQP2, e.g., a compound binding to AQP2, e.g., to a patient in need thereof, e.g., wherein the inhibitor of AQP2 is selected from phenylbenzamides, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 above, for example

3.

-   -   3.1. Method 3 further comprising one or more of restriction of         dietary sodium, fluid and/or alcohol; and/or administration of         one or more diuretics, vasopressin receptor antagonists,         angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, aldosterone         inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),         beta-adrenergic antagonists (beta-blockers), and/or digoxin.     -   3.2. Any of Method 3, et seq. wherein the AQP2 inhibitor         inhibits AQP2 activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10         micromolar or less, for example inhibits APQ2 activity by at         least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or less in an         aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is active in         any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   3.3. Any of Method 3, et seq. wherein the AQP2 inhibitor is         administered orally.     -   3.4. Any of Method 3, et seq. wherein the AQP2 inhibitor is         administered parenterally.     -   3.5. Method 3.4 wherein the AQP2 inhibitor is administered         intravenously.     -   3.6. Any of Method 3, et seq. wherein the patient is human.     -   3.7. Any of Method 3, et seq. wherein the onset of action of any         of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 is fairly rapid.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 4) of treating or controlling a condition selected from epilepsy, retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue hydration, myocardial ischemia, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial hypoxia, congestive heart failure, sepsis, neuromyelitis optica, or migraines comprising administering an effective amount of an inhibitor of AQP4, e.g, a compound binding to AQP4, to a patient in need thereof, e.g., wherein the inhibitor of AQP4 is selected from phenylbenzamides, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Method 1-1.28 above, for example

4.

-   -   4.1. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye associated with         abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or tissue hydration.     -   4.2. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is myocardial ischemia.     -   4.3. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.     -   4.4. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is myocardial infarction.     -   4.5. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is myocardial hypoxia.     -   4.6. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is congestive heart failure.     -   4.7. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is sepsis.     -   4.8. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is neuromyelitis optica.     -   4.9. Method 4 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is a migraine.     -   4.10. Any of Method 4, et seq. wherein the AQP4 inhibitor         inhibits AQP4 activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10         micromolar or less, for example inhibits APQ4 activity by at         least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or less in an         aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is active in         any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   4.11. Any of Method 4, et seq. wherein the AQP4 inhibitor is         administered orally.     -   4.12. Any of Method 4, et seq. wherein the AQP4 inhibitor is         administered parenterally.     -   4.13. Method 4.12 wherein the AQP4 inhibitor is administered         intravenously.     -   4.14. Any of Method 4, et seq. wherein the patient is human.     -   4.15. Any of Method 4, et seq. wherein the onset of action of         any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 is fairly         rapid.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 5) of treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Method 1-1.28 above, in an amount effective to inhibit the aquaporin, for example

5.

-   -   5.1. Method 5 wherein the aquaporin is AQP4.     -   5.2. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is selected from edema, e.g. edema of the brain or         spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g. cerebral edema         consequent to head trauma, ischemic stroke, glioma, meningitis,         acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizures, infections,         metabolic disorders, water intoxication, hepatic failure,         hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis or, e.g.,         spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent to spinal         cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   5.3. Method 5.2 further comprising a treatment selected from one         or more of the following: optimal head and neck positioning to         facilitate venous outflow, e.g. head elevation 30°; avoidance of         dehydration; systemic hypotension; maintenance of normothermia         or hypothermia; aggressive measures; osmotherapy, e.g., using         mannitol or hypertonic saline; hyperventilation; therapeutic         pressor therapy to enhance cerebral perfusion; administration of         barbiturates to reduce of cerebral metabolism (CMO₂);         hemicraniectomy; administration of aspirin; administration of         amantadine; intravenous thrombolysis (e.g. using rtPA);         mechanical clot removal; angioplasty; and/or stents.     -   5.4. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of cerebral edema, e.g., due to head trauma, ischemic         stroke, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic         seizure, infection, metabolic disorder, water intoxication,         hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic         ketoacidosis.     -   5.5. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury, or spinal injury.     -   5.6. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury or spinal injury within 12 hours, e.g.         within 6 hours, preferably within 3 hours of commencing         treatment.     -   5.7. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of suffering a stroke, head injury or spinal injury, e.g.,         in combat or in an athletic competition.     -   5.8. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the patient already has         cerebral edema.     -   5.9. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a stroke         or a traumatic brain injury.     -   5.10. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a middle         cerebral artery stroke.     -   5.11. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a closed         head trauma.     -   5.12. Any of Methods 5-5.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an epileptic         seizure.     -   5.13. Any of Methods 5-5.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an infection.     -   5.14. Any of Methods 5-5.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a metabolic         disorder.     -   5.15. Any of Methods 5-5.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to glioma.     -   5.16. Any of Methods 5-5.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to meningitis, acute         mountain sickness, or water intoxication.     -   5.17. Any of Methods 5-5.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to hepatic failure,         hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.     -   5.18. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an abscess.     -   5.19. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to eclampsia.     -   5.20. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to Creutzfeldt-Jakob         disease.     -   5.21. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to lupus cerebritis.     -   5.22. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is edema consequent to hypoxia, e.g., general         systemic hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused by an interruption of         blood perfusion, for example wherein the edema is cerebral edema         consequent to hypoxia caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or other         interruption of blood perfusion to the brain, or wherein the         edema is cardiac edema consequent to cardiac ischemia or other         interruption of blood flow to the heart.     -   5.23. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral and/or optic nerve edema consequent to         microgravity and/or radiation exposure, e.g., exposure from         space flight or from working with radioactive materials or from         working in radioactive areas.     -   5.24. Any of Methods 5-5.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to invasive central         nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot         removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   5.25. Method 5.23 or 5.24 wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of edema, e.g., due to microgravity and/or radiation         exposure, neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap,         aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   5.26. Method 5.23 or 5.24 wherein the patient already has edema.     -   5.27. Any of Methods 5, et seq. wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   5.28. Any of Methods 5-5.17 or 5.22 wherein the edema is         cytotoxic cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral         edema.     -   5.29. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema         consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   5.30. Method 5.29 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord         compression.     -   5.31. Any of Methods 5-5.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is retinal edema.     -   5.32. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is epilepsy.     -   5.33. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye         associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or         tissue hydration.     -   5.34. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia.     -   5.35. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.     -   5.36. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial infarction.     -   5.37. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial hypoxia.     -   5.38. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is congestive heart failure.     -   5.39. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is sepsis.     -   5.40. Method 5 or 5.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is a migraine.     -   5.41. Method 5 wherein the aquaporin is AQP2.     -   5.42. Method 5 or 5.41 wherein the condition to be treated is         hyponatremia or excessive fluid retention, e.g., consequent to         heart failure (HF), for example congestive heart failure, liver         cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or syndrome of inappropriate         antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).     -   5.43. Method 5.42 further comprising one or more of restriction         of dietary sodium, fluid and/or alcohol; and/or administration         of one or more diuretics, vasopressin receptor antagonists,         angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, aldosterone         inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),         beta-adrenergic antagonists (beta-blockers), and/or digoxin.     -   5.44. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the compound of Formula I         or formula 1a inhibits aquaporin activity, e.g., AQP2 and/or         AQP4 activity, by at least 50% at concentrations of 10         micromolar or less, for example inhibits APQ2 and/or AQP4         activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or         less in an aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is         active in any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   5.45. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the duration of treatment         with the phenylbenzamide is less than 21 days, e.g., less than 2         weeks, e.g., one week or less.     -   5.46. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or the         compound of Formula I or formula 1a is administered orally.     -   5.47. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or the         compound of Formula I or formula 1a is administered         parenterally.     -   5.48. Method 5.47 wherein the niclosamide or the compound of         Formula I or formula 1a is administered intravenously.     -   5.49. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the patient is human.     -   5.50. Any of Method 5, et seq. wherein the onset of action of         any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 is fairly         rapid.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 6) of inhibiting an aquaporin comprising contacting the aquaporin with an effective amount of a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Method 1-1.28 above, for example

6.

-   -   6.1. Method 6 wherein the aquaporin is inhibited in vivo.     -   6.2. Method 6 wherein the aquaporin is inhibited in vitro.     -   6.3. Any of Methods 6, et seq. wherein the aquaporin is AQP4.     -   6.4. Any of Method 6, et seq. wherein the aquaporin is AQP2.     -   6.5. Any of Method 6, et seq. wherein the compound of Formula I         or formula 1a inhibits aquaporin activity, e.g., AQP2 and/or         AQP4 activity, by at least 50% at concentrations of 10         micromolar or less, for example inhibits APQ2 and/or AQP4         activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or         less in an aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is         active in any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   6.6. Method 6.1 wherein the niclosamide or the compound of         Formula I or formula 1a is administered orally.     -   6.7. Method 6.1 wherein the niclosamide or the compound of         Formula I or formula 1a is administered parenterally.     -   6.8. Method of 6.7 wherein the niclosamide or the compound of         Formula I or formula 1a is administered intravenously.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method (Method 7) to inhibit an aquaporin in a patient suffering from a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin comprising administering an effective amount of a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Method 1-1.28 above, to inhibit the aquaporin.

7.

-   -   7.1. Method 7 wherein the aquaporin is AQP4.     -   7.2. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is selected from edema, e.g. edema of the brain or         spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g. cerebral edema         consequent to head trauma, ischemic stroke, glioma, meningitis,         acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizure, infection, metabolic         disorder, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic         encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis or, e.g., spinal cord         edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord trauma,         e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   7.3. Method 7.2 further comprising a treatment selected from one         or more of the following: optimal head and neck positioning to         facilitate venous outflow, e.g. head elevation 30°; avoidance of         dehydration; systemic hypotension; maintenance of normothermia         or hypothermia; aggressive measures; osmotherapy, e.g., using         mannitol or hypertonic saline; hyperventilation; therapeutic         pressor therapy to enhance cerebral perfusion; administration of         barbiturates to reduce of cerebral metabolism (CMO₂);         hemicraniectomy; administration of aspirin; administration of         amantadine; intravenous thrombolysis (e.g. using rtPA);         mechanical clot removal; angioplasty; and/or stents.     -   7.4. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of cerebral edema, e.g., due to head trauma, ischemic         stroke, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic         seizure, infection, metabolic disorder, water intoxication,         hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic         ketoacidosis.     -   7.5. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury, or spinal injury.     -   7.6. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury or spinal injury within 12 hours, e.g.         within 6 hours, preferably within 3 hours of commencing         treatment.     -   7.7. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of suffering a stroke, head injury or spinal injury, e.g.,         in combat or in an athletic competition.     -   7.8. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the patient already has         cerebral edema.     -   7.9. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a stroke         or a traumatic brain injury.     -   7.10. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a middle         cerebral artery stroke.     -   7.11. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the condition to be         treated or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a closed         head trauma.     -   7.12. Any of Methods 7-7.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an epileptic         seizure.     -   7.13. Any of Methods 7-7.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent an infection.     -   7.14. Any of Methods 7-7.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a metabolic         disorder.     -   7.15. Any of Methods 7-7.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to glioma.     -   7.16. Any of Methods 7-7.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to meningitis, acute         mountain sickness, or water intoxication.     -   7.17. Any of Methods 7-7.4 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to hepatic failure,         hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.     -   7.18. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an abscess.     -   7.19. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to eclampsia.     -   7.20. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to Creutzfeldt-Jakob         disease.     -   7.21. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to lupus cerebritis.     -   7.22. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is edema consequent to hypoxia, e.g., general         systemic hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused by an interruption of         blood perfusion, for example wherein the edema is cerebral edema         consequent to hypoxia caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or other         interruption of blood perfusion to the brain, or wherein the         edema is cardiac edema consequent to cardiac ischemia or other         interruption of blood flow to the heart.     -   7.23. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral and/or optical nerve edema consequent         to microgravity and/or radiation exposure, e.g., exposure from         space flight or from working with radioactive materials or from         working in radioactive areas.     -   7.24. Any of Methods 7-7.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to invasive central         nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot         removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   7.25. Method 7.23 or 7.24 wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of edema, e.g., due to microgravity and/or radiation         exposure, neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap,         aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   7.26. Method 7.23 or 7.24 wherein the patient already has edema.     -   7.27. Any of Methods 7, et seq. wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   7.28. Any of Methods 7-7.17 or 7.22 wherein the edema is         cytotoxic cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral         edema.     -   7.29. Any of Methods 7-7.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema         consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   7.30. Method 7.29 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord         compression.     -   7.31. Any of Methods 7-7.2 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is retinal edema.     -   7.32. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is epilepsy.     -   7.33. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye         associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or         tissue hydration.     -   7.34. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia.     -   7.35. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.     -   7.36. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial infarction.     -   7.37. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial hypoxia.     -   7.38. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is congestive heart failure.     -   7.39. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is sepsis.     -   7.40. Method 7 or 7.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is a migraine.     -   7.41. Method 7 wherein the aquaporin is AQP2.     -   7.42. Method 7 or 7.41 wherein the condition to be treated is         hyponatremia or excessive fluid retention, e.g., consequent to         heart failure (HF), for example congestive heart failure, liver         cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or syndrome of inappropriate         antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).     -   7.43. Method 7.42 further comprising one or more of restriction         of dietary sodium, fluid and/or alcohol; and/or administration         of one or more diuretics, vasopressin receptor antagonists,         angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, aldosterone         inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),         beta-adrenergic antagonists (beta-blockers), and/or digoxin.     -   7.44. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the compound of Formula I         or formula 1a inhibits aquaporin activity, e.g., AQP2 and/or         AQP4 activity, by at least 50% at concentrations of 10         micromolar or less, for example inhibits APQ2 and/or AQP4         activity by at least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or         less in an aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is         active in any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   7.45. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the duration of treatment         with the phenylbenzamide is less than 21 days, e.g., less than 2         weeks, e.g., one week or less.     -   7.46. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or         compound of Formula I or formula 1a is administered orally.     -   7.47. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the niclosamide or         compound of Formula I or formula 1a is administered         parenterally.     -   7.48. Method 7.47 wherein the niclosamide or compound of Formula         I or formula 1a is administered intravenously.     -   7.49. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the patient is human.     -   7.50. Any of Method 7, et seq. wherein the onset of action of         any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 is fairly         rapid.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 above, for use (Use 8) to inhibit an aquaporin in a patient suffering from a disease or condition mediated by the aquaporin. For example, for use in any of the foregoing methods.

8.

-   -   8.1. Use 8 wherein the aquaporin is AQP4.     -   8.2. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is selected from edema, e.g. edema of the brain or         spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g. cerebral edema         consequent to head trauma, ischemic stroke, glioma, meningitis,         acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizure, infection, metabolic         disorder, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic         encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis or, e.g., spinal cord         edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord trauma,         e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   8.3. Use 8.2 further comprising a treatment selected from one or         more of the following: optimal head and neck positioning to         facilitate venous outflow, e.g. head elevation 30°; avoidance of         dehydration; systemic hypotension; maintenance of normothermia         or hypothermia; aggressive measures; osmotherapy, e.g., using         mannitol or hypertonic saline; hyperventilation; therapeutic         pressor therapy to enhance cerebral perfusion; administration of         barbiturates to reduce of cerebral metabolism (CMO₂);         hemicraniectomy; administration of aspirin; administration of         amantadine; intravenous thrombolysis (e.g. using rtPA);         mechanical clot removal; angioplasty; and/or stents.     -   8.4. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of cerebral edema, e.g., due to head trauma, ischemic         stroke, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic         seizure, infection, metabolic disorder, water intoxication,         hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic         ketoacidosis.     -   8.5. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury, or spinal injury.     -   8.6. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury or spinal injury within 12 hours, e.g.         within 6 hours, preferably within 3 hours of commencing         treatment.     -   8.7. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of suffering a stroke, head injury or spinal injury, e.g.,         in combat or in an athletic competition.     -   8.8. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the patient already has         cerebral edema.     -   8.9. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a stroke or a         traumatic brain injury.     -   8.10. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a middle cerebral         artery stroke.     -   8.11. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a closed head         trauma.     -   8.12. Any of Uses 8-8.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an epileptic seizure.     -   8.13. Any of Uses 8-8.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an infection.     -   8.14. Any of Uses 8-8.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a metabolic disorder.     -   8.15. Any of Uses 8-8.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to glioma.     -   8.16. Any of Uses 8-8.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to meningitis, acute         mountain sickness, or water intoxication.     -   8.17. Any of Uses 8-8.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to hepatic failure,         hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.     -   8.18. Any of the Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an abscess.     -   8.19. Any of the Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to eclampsia.     -   8.20. Any of Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to Creutzfeldt-Jakob         disease.     -   8.21. Any of Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent lupus cerebritis.     -   8.22. Any of Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is edema consequent to hypoxia, e.g., general         systemic hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused by an interruption of         blood perfusion, for example wherein the edema is cerebral edema         consequent to hypoxia caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or other         interruption of blood perfusion to the brain, or wherein the         edema is cardiac edema consequent to cardiac ischemia or other         interruption of blood flow to the heart.     -   8.23. Any of Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral and/or optic nerve edema consequent to         microgravity and/or radiation exposure, e.g., exposure from         space flight or from working with radioactive materials or from         working in radioactive areas.     -   8.24. Any of Uses 8-8.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to invasive central         nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot         removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   8.25. Use 8.23 or 8.24 wherein the patient is at elevated risk         of edema, e.g., due to microgravity exposure and/or radiation,         neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm         repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   8.26. Use 8.23 or 8.24 wherein the patient already has edema.     -   8.27. Any of Uses 8, et seq. wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   8.28. Any of Uses 8-8.17 or 8.22 wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   8.29. Any of Uses 8-8.2 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema         consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   8.30. Use 8.29 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord compression.     -   8.31. Any of Uses 8-8.2 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is retinal edema.     -   8.32. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is epilepsy.     -   8.33. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye         associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or         tissue hydration.     -   8.34. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia.     -   8.35. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.     -   8.36. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial infarction.     -   8.37. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial hypoxia.     -   8.38. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is congestive heart failure.     -   8.39. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is sepsis.     -   8.40. Use 8 or 8.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is a migraine.     -   8.41. Use 8 wherein the aquaporin is AQP2.     -   8.42. Use 8 or 8.41 wherein the condition to be treated is         hyponatremia or excessive fluid retention, e.g., consequent to         heart failure (HF), for example congestive heart failure, liver         cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or syndrome of inappropriate         antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).     -   8.43. Use 8.42 further comprising one or more of restriction of         dietary sodium, fluid and/or alcohol; and/or administration of         one or more diuretics, vasopressin receptor antagonists,         angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, aldosterone         inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),         beta-adrenergic antagonists (beta-blockers), and/or digoxin.     -   8.44. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the compound of Formula I or         formula 1a inhibits aquaporin activity, e.g., AQP2 and/or AQP4         activity, by at least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or         less, for example inhibits APQ2 and/or AQP4 activity by at least         50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or less in an         aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is active in         any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   8.45. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the duration of treatment         with the phenylbenzamide is less than 21 days, e.g., less than 2         weeks, e.g., one week or less.     -   8.46. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the pharmaceutical         composition is administered orally.     -   8.47. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the pharmaceutical         composition is administered parenterally.     -   8.48. Use 8.47 wherein the pharmaceutical composition is         administered intravenously.     -   8.49. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the patient is human.     -   8.50. Any of Use 8, et seq. wherein the onset of action of the         pharmaceutical composition is fairly rapid.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides use (Use 9) of a phenylbenzamide, e.g. niclosamide or a compound of Formula I or formula 1a as hereinbefore described, e.g., any of the compounds identified in Methods 1-1.28 above, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin wherein the medicament comprises the phenylbenzamide in an amount effective to inhibit the aquaporin. For example, for use in any of the foregoing methods.

9.

-   -   9.1. Use 9 wherein the aquaporin is AQP4.     -   9.2. Any of Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is selected from edema, e.g. edema of the brain or         spinal cord, e.g., cerebral edema, e.g. cerebral edema         consequent to head trauma, ischemic stroke, glioma, meningitis,         acute mountain sickness, epileptic seizure, infection, metabolic         disorder, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic         encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis or, e.g., spinal cord         edema, e.g., spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord trauma,         e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   9.3. Use 9.2 further comprising a treatment selected from one or         more of the following: optimal head and neck positioning to         facilitate venous outflow, e.g. head elevation 30°; avoidance of         dehydration; systemic hypotension; maintenance of normothermia         or hypothermia; aggressive measures; osmotherapy, e.g., using         mannitol or hypertonic saline; hyperventilation; therapeutic         pressor therapy to enhance cerebral perfusion; administration of         barbiturates to reduce of cerebral metabolism (CMO₂);         hemicraniectomy; administration of aspirin; administration of         amantadine; intravenous thrombolysis (e.g. using rtPA);         mechanical clot removal; angioplasty; and/or stents.     -   9.4. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of cerebral edema, e.g., due to head trauma, ischemic         stroke, glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, epileptic         seizure, infection, metabolic disorder, water intoxication,         hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic         ketoacidosis.     -   9.5. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury, or spinal injury.     -   9.6. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the patient has suffered a         stroke, head injury or spinal injury within 12 hours, e.g.         within 6 hours, preferably within 3 hours of commencing         treatment.     -   9.7. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the patient is at elevated         risk of suffering a stroke, head injury or spinal injury, e.g.,         in combat or in an athletic competition.     -   9.8. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the patient already has         cerebral edema.     -   9.9. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a stroke or a         traumatic brain injury.     -   9.10. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a middle cerebral         artery stroke.     -   9.11. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the condition to be treated         or controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a closed head         trauma.     -   9.12. Any of Uses 9-9.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an epileptic seizure.     -   9.13. Any of Uses 9-9.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an infection.     -   9.14. Any of Uses 9-9.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to a metabolic disorder.     -   9.15. Any of Uses 9-9.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to glioma.     -   9.16. Any of Uses 9-9.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to meningitis, acute         mountain sickness, or water intoxication.     -   9.17. Any of Uses 9-9.4 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to hepatic failure,         hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.     -   9.18. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to an abscess.     -   9.19. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to eclampsia.     -   9.20. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to Creutzfeldt-Jakob         disease.     -   9.21. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to lupus cerebritis.     -   9.22. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is edema consequent to hypoxia, e.g., general         systemic hypoxia, e.g., hypoxia caused by an interruption of         blood perfusion, for example wherein the edema is cerebral edema         consequent to hypoxia caused by cardiac arrest, stroke, or other         interruption of blood perfusion to the brain, or wherein the         edema is cardiac edema consequent to cardiac ischemia or other         interruption of blood flow to the heart.     -   9.23. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral and/or optic nerve edema consequent to         microgravity and/or radiation exposure, e.g., exposure from         space flight or from working with radioactive materials or from         working in radioactive areas.     -   9.24. Any of Uses 9-9.3 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is cerebral edema consequent to invasive central         nervous system procedures, e.g., neurosurgery, endovascular clot         removal, spinal tap, aneurysm repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   9.25. Use 9.24 or 9.25 wherein the patient is at elevated risk         of edema, e.g., due to microgravity and/or radiation exposure,         neurosurgery, endovascular clot removal, spinal tap, aneurysm         repair, or deep brain stimulation.     -   9.26. Use 9.24 or 9.25 wherein the patient already has edema.     -   9.27. Any of Uses 9, et seq. wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   9.28. Any of Uses 9-9.17 or 9.22 wherein the edema is cytotoxic         cerebral edema or is primarily cytotoxic cerebral edema.     -   9.29. Any of Uses 9-9.2 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is spinal cord edema, e.g., spinal cord edema         consequent to spinal cord trauma, e.g., spinal cord compression.     -   9.30. Use 9.29 wherein the condition to be treated or controlled         is spinal cord edema consequent to spinal cord compression.     -   9.31. Any of Uses 9-9.2 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is retinal edema.     -   9.32. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is epilepsy.     -   9.33. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is retinal ischemia or other diseases of the eye         associated with abnormalities in intraocular pressure and/or         tissue hydration.     -   9.34. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia.     -   9.35. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury.     -   9.36. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial infarction.     -   9.37. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is myocardial hypoxia.     -   9.38. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is congestive heart failure.     -   9.39. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is sepsis.     -   9.40. Use 9 or 9.1 wherein the condition to be treated or         controlled is a migraine.     -   9.41. Use 9 wherein the aquaporin is AQP2.     -   9.42. Use 9 or 9.41 wherein the condition to be treated is         hyponatremia or excessive fluid retention, e.g., consequent to         heart failure (HF), for example congestive heart failure, liver         cirrhosis, nephrotic disorder, or syndrome of inappropriate         antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH).     -   9.43. Use 9.42 further comprising one or more of restriction of         dietary sodium, fluid and/or alcohol; and/or administration of         one or more diuretics, vasopressin receptor antagonists,         angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, aldosterone         inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs),         beta-adrenergic antagonists (beta-blockers), and/or digoxin.     -   9.44. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the compound of Formula I or         formula 1a inhibits aquaporin activity, e.g., AQP2 and/or AQP4         activity, by at least 50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or         less, for example inhibits APQ2 and/or AQP4 activity by at least         50% at concentrations of 10 micromolar or less in an         aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay, e.g., is active in         any of the assays of Method 10, et seq. infra     -   9.45. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the duration of treatment         with the phenylbenzamide is less than 21 days, e.g., less than 2         weeks, e.g., one week or less.     -   9.46. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the medicament is formulated         for oral administration.     -   9.47. Any of Use 9, et seq. wherein the medicament is formulated         for parenteral administration.     -   9.48. Use 9.47 wherein the medicament is formulated for         intravenous administration.

A dose or method of administration of the dose of the present invention is not particularly limited. Dosages employed in practicing the present invention will of course vary depending, e.g. on the particular disease or condition to be treated, the particular compound used, the mode of administration, and the therapy desired. The compounds may be administered by any suitable route, including orally, parenterally, transdermally, or by inhalation. In stroke or other severely debilitating diseases or conditions, for example where the patient may be unconscious or unable to swallow, an IV infusion or IV bolus may be preferred. In general, satisfactory results, e.g. for the treatment of diseases as hereinbefore set forth are indicated to be obtained on oral administration at dosages of the order from about 0.01 to 15.0 mg/kg. In larger mammals, for example humans, an indicated daily dosage for oral administration will accordingly be in the range of from about 0.75 to 1000 mg per day, conveniently administered once, or in divided doses 2 to 3 times, daily or in sustained release form. Unit dosage forms for oral administration thus for example may comprise from about 0.2 to 75 or 150 mg, e.g. from about 0.2 or 2.0 to 50, 75, 100, 125, 150 or 200 mg of a Compound of the Invention, together with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier therefor. When the medicament is used via injection (subcutaneously, intramuscularly or intravenously) the dose may be 0.25 to 500 mg per day by bolus or if IV by bolus or infusion.

Pharmaceutical compositions comprising compounds of Formula I or formula 1a may be prepared using conventional diluents or excipients and techniques known in the galenic art. Thus oral dosage forms may include tablets, capsules, solutions, suspensions and the like.

Methods of making and formulating compounds of Formula I or formula 1a are set forth in US 2010/0274051 A1, U.S. Pat. No. 7,700,655, and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,626,042, each incorporated herein by reference.

In a further embodiment, the invention provides a method, e.g., Method 10, for identification of specific aquaporin inhibitors, comprising measuring the response of an aquaporin-expressing cell population versus a control cell population to a hypertonic or hypotonic solution in the presence or absence of a test compound. For example the invention provides, e.g.,

10.

-   -   10.1. Method 10 wherein the aquaporin-expressing cell population         expresses AQP2 or AQP4.     -   10.2. Any of Method 10 or 10.1 wherein the cells are mammalian,         e.g., transgenic CHO cells.     -   10.3. Any of Method 10, et seq. wherein the control cells         express a transgenic transmembrane protein other than an         aquaporin, e.g., CD81.     -   10.4. Any of Method 10, et seq. wherein the cells are exposed to         a hypotonic environment for a period of time and at a         concentration which causes most of the aquaporin-expressing cell         population to burst in the absence of test compound, but not the         control cell population, e.g. 3-8 minutes in water.     -   10.5. Method 10.4 wherein cell bursting is measured by a         fluorescent signal that is produced by viable cells but not by         burst cells, e.g., conversion of acetoxymethyl calcein         (calcein-AM) to the fluorescent dye calcein.     -   10.6. Method 10.4 or 10.5 wherein the cells are exposed to a         hypotonic environment, e.g., deionized water, for a period of         3-8 minutes, and then returned to normotonic environment (e.g.         ca. 300 mOSM) then the proportion of viable cells is measured.     -   10.7. Any of Method 10, et seq. wherein the measurement of         viability is the ability of the cells to convert acetoxymethyl         calcein (calcein-AM) to the fluorescent dye calcein.     -   10.8. Any of the foregoing Methods 10.4, et seq. wherein a         compound of Formula I as hereinbefore described, e.g., of         formula 1a, is used as a positive control, which inhibits the         aquaporin-expressing cell population from bursting in a         hypotonic environment.     -   10.9. Any of the foregoing Methods 10.4-10.8 wherein a test         compound is identified as having aquaporin-inhibitory activity         when the aquaporin-expressing cell population is identified         viable, e.g., by the ability of the cells to convert         acetoxymethyl calcein (calcein-AM) to the fluorescent dye         calcein, following an exposure in a presence of test compound to         a hypotonic environment that renders the aquaporin-expressing         cell population non-viable in the absence of test compound.     -   10.10. Any of Method 10 or 10.1-10.3 wherein the cells are         exposed to a hypertonic environment for a period of time and at         a concentration sufficient to cause the aquaporin-expressing         cell population to shrink in the absence of test compound, e.g.         3-8 minutes at ca. 530 mOsm.     -   10.11. Method 10.9 wherein the shrinkage of the cells is         measured by light scattering.     -   10.12. Any of Method 10.10, et seq. wherein the hypertonic         environment is approximately 530 mOsm and the normotonic         environment is approximately 300 mOsm.     -   10.13. Any of the foregoing Methods 10.10, et seq. wherein a         compound of Formula I as hereinbefore described, e.g., of         formula 1a, is used as a positive control, which inhibits the         aquaporin-expressing cell population from shrinking in a         hypertonic environment.     -   10.14. Any of the foregoing Methods 10.10, et seq. wherein a         test compound is identified as inhibiting aquaporin activity by         inhibiting the aquaporin-expressing cell population from         shrinking in a hypertonic environment.     -   10.15. Any of the foregoing methods wherein a test compound is         identified as inhibiting aquaporin activity.     -   10.16. Any of Method 10, et seq. wherein the         aquaporin-expressing cell population expresses AQP2.     -   10.17. Any of Method 10, et seq. wherein the         aquaporin-expressing cell population expresses AQP4.     -   10.18. Any of Method 10, et seq. wherein the test compound is a         phenylbenzamide, e.g., of Formula I as hereinbefore described,         e.g., of formula 1a.

As used throughout, ranges are used as shorthand for describing each and every value that is within the range. Any value within the range can be selected as the terminus of the range. In addition, all references cited herein are hereby incorporated by referenced in their entireties. In the event of a conflict in a definition in the present disclosure and that of a cited reference, the present disclosure controls.

Unless otherwise specified, all percentages and amounts expressed herein and elsewhere in the specification should be understood to refer to percentages by weight. The amounts given are based on the active weight of the material.

Example 1—Phenylbenzamide-AQP Structure-Activity Relationship

Structure activity relationships (SARs) are determined by assaying analogues of selected hits to guide chemistry for the preparation of new molecules to be tested for improved potency. For this iterative process we use a quantitative kinetic assay—the Aquaporin-Mediated Cell Volume Change Assa—in a 96-well multiplate reader. It detects changes in light scattering by a monolayer of CHO cells expressing the desired AQP as they shrink when exposed to hypertonic solution (300 mOsm→530 mOsm). FIG. 1 depicts the aquaporin-mediated cell volume change assay with AQP4 expressing cells (FIG. 1A) and AQP2 expressing cells (FIG. 1B). The cells expressing aquaporins shrink more rapidly than control cells, due to enhanced water flow, which shrinkage can be inhibited by a compound that inhibits the aquaporin.

In FIG. 1, aquaporin-expressing cells are shown in the presence of DMSO (triangles) or in the presence of the test compound (here, Compound 3) at 10 μM (squares), along with CHO-CD81 expressing control cells in the presence of DMSO (diamonds). Each curve represents an average of 16 wells in the 96-well plate.

In FIG. 1A, when the AQP4b cells treated with DMSO are exposed to hypertonic shock, the cells show rapid shrinking, giving a rise in light scattering (increasing relative change in absorbance, Abs/Abs₀) followed by a decay as cells detach from the plate. The CHO-AQP4b cell line shows a 4.5-fold increase in the rate of shrinking compared to CHO-CD81 control cells (fitted to a double exponential model). CHO-AQP4b cells treated with the Compound 3 analogue at 10 μM (squares) show a slower rate of shrinking (55% inhibition) as seen by characteristic ‘unbending’ of the light scattering curve. Similarly, FIG. 1B depicts an experiment comparing CHO-AQP2 treated with DMSO or with Compound 3 at 10 μM. Aquaporin-2 has a lower intrinsic water permeability than AQP4 as observed here. CHO-AQP2 cell lines treated with DMSO (FIG. 1B, triangles) show a 1.7-fold increase in the rate of shrinking compared to CHO-CD81 control cells (diamonds) also treated with DMSO (fitted to a double exponential model) (FIG. 1B). CHO-AQP2 cells treated with Compound 3 at 10 μM (squares) show a slower rate of shrinking (81% inhibition), when comparing the relative change in Abs (Abs/Abs₀) (FIG. 1B).

The data indicates that in this assay, Compound 3 is capable of significantly inhibiting AQP2 and AQP4 activity, e.g. by greater than 50%, at concentrations of 10 μM.

Example 2—Aquaporin Specificity of the Phenylbenzamide Compounds

The specificity of the compounds is tested against the most closely related of the 13 known aquaporins: AQP1, AQP2, AQP5 and both splice variants of AQP4 (A and B). A stable CHO cell line is created for each of the above aquaporins and the inhibition of water permeability using the Aquaporin-Mediated Cell Volume Change Assay with 10 μM Compound 3 is tested. Compound 3 inhibits AQP2 and 4, while it poorly inhibits AQP1 and 5 (FIG. 2).

Example 3—Direct Drug-Target Interactions Between Phenylbenzamides and AQP4

To support the mechanism of action by which phenylbenzamides directly block AQP4, we perform in vitro binding studies using purified AQP4b and Compound 4 radiolabeled with ³H. Using a Hummel-Dryer style assay, a gel filtration column is equilibratrated with buffer containing detergent, to maintain solubility of AQP4b, and 1 μM [³H]-Compound 4. AQP4b is diluted to 250 μM in this column buffer and incubated at RT for 30 min. The sample is then applied to the column, fractions collected and the presence of [³H]-Compound 4 detected by liquid scintillation counting. FIG. 3 shows the elution profile of [³H]-Compound 4 from the gel filtration column with the elution positions of tetrameric and monomeric AQP4b indicated. The rise in [³H]-Compound 4 from a baseline value of 1 μM represents binding to each of these proteins. Although no monomeric AQP4b can be readily detected in our highly purified AQP4b by conventional means, this assay reveals the presence of a small, albiet vanishing, amount of monomer. The relative affinities for Compound 4 are ˜100 μM and less than 1 μM for tetramer and monomer, respectively. This assay shows relatively weak binding of Compound 4 to solubilized AQP4b; nevertheless, it clearly demonstrates that this phenylbenzamide directly interacts with AQP4b.

Example 4—Pharmacological Proof-of-Concept

Mouse Water Toxicity Model—Survival Curves: The in vivo efficacies of the compounds are tested using the mouse water toxicity model, where a mouse is injected with water at 20% of its body weight. Manley, G. T. et al. Aquaporin-4 deletion in mice reduces brain edema after acute water intoxication and ischemic stroke. Nat Med 6, 159-163 (2000); Gullans, S. R. & Verbalis, J. G. Control of brain volume during hyperosmolar and hypoosmolar conditions. Annual Review of Medicine 44, 289-301 (1993). The resulting euvolemic hyponatremia rapidly leads to CE, making this a practical model to test an inhibitor of the CNS aquaporin, AQP4b.

The ability of mice to survive H₂O toxicity is determined in three experiments using 10-12 mice each (16-19 weak old male/female). Deionized water is prepared for injection with either 0.39 mg/kg phenylbenzamide (placebo) or 0.76 mg/kg with test compound. FIG. 4 shows the combined results of these experiments (n=33 placebo, n=34 Compound 1). Percent survival of the Compound 1 cohorts improves 3.2 fold and the time to 50% survival for animals treated with Compound 1 is improved by roughly 52 min.

Mouse Water Toxicity Model—Brain Water Content: Compounds are also tested for the ability to reduce CE in mice exposed to the water shock by examining brain water content. Mice are treated with a water bolus as described above, then sacrificed at 30 minutes. Brain water content is assessed by fresh/dry weight ratio, i.e. the brains are weighed immediately then desiccated in an oven at 100° C. for 24 h and dry weights measured (brain water percentage=100×dry weight/fresh weight). At 30 minutes, mice treated with 0.76 mg/kg and 7.6 mg/kg Compound 1 show an 11.2% and 15.9% reduction in CE, respectively (FIG. 5).

Mouse Water Toxicity Model—Brain Volume by Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): MRI is used to measure changes in brain volume in response to water shock, using the water toxicity model. As described for the survival and brain water content studies above, mice are injected, IP, with a water bolus alone or water bolus and test compound at 0.76 mg/kg, and changes in brain volume as detected by MRI are monitored. Mouse brain volumes are assessed using MRI scans collected with a 9.4T Bruker Biospec MRI scanner at the Case Center for Imaging Research at Case Western Reserve University. This imaging method is found to provide sufficient contrast and resolution to sensitively detect changes in total brain volume in the mouse water toxicity model for cerebral edema. High resolution T2-weighted sagittal scans (resolution=0.1 mm×0.1 mm×0.7 mm) of the mouse head are obtained prior to water injection, 5.67 min post water injection, and then every 5.2 minutes until the animal expires from the water loading. Each scan contains twenty-five 0.7 mm contiguous imaging slices of which 14-15 slices contain a portion of the brain. The cross sectional area of the brain in each imaging slice is measured by manual region-of-interest selection using ImageJ. Brain volumes are then calculated for each scan by summing the individual cross sectional brain areas and multiplying by the slice thickness (0.7 mm).

Treatment with Compound 1 at 0.76 mg/kg reduces the rate of CE development from 0.081 to 0.032 min⁻¹ (or 2.5-fold) fit to a single exponential model (FIG. 6). Also, the extent of CE during the period of observation is reduced (FIG. 6). Moreover, plasma levels in the same assay are found to range between 0.03-0.06 μg as determined by LC-MS/MS (performed at Lerner Center, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio) and are sufficient to show efficacy in this model for CE.

The brain volume by magnetic resonance imaging experiment is also conducted with phenylbenzamide (0.39 mg/kg) and Compound 4 (0.83 mg/kg). Compound 4 reduces the rate of CE development from 0.081 to 0.022 min⁻¹ (Table 1). Phenylbenzamide fails to show reduction in the rate of CE in mice (Table 1).

TABLE 1 Efficacy of compounds on CE formation in the mouse water toxicity model AOP Inhibition Cerebral Edema Compound Cell-Based Assay (%) Rate by MRI (min⁻¹) No Drug 0 0.081 Compound 1 47.9 0.032 Phenylbenzamide 4.5 0.096 Compound 4 38.9 0.022 For no drug and Compound 1, n=14 mice each. For phenylbenzamide and Compound 4, n=12 mice each.

Example 5—High Throughput Screening Assay

Under hypotonic shock, both untransfected cells and cells expressing an unrelated transmembrane protein (CD81, at levels equivalent to AQP4b) swell slowly but remain intact. These observations are used to develop our high-throughput screening assay (HTS).

After hypotonic shock in a 384 well plate format, we return osmolality to normal (300 mOSM) by adding 2× concentrated phosphate buffered saline supplemented to 2 μM with a nonfluorescent acetoxymethyl derivative of calcein (calcein-AM) to each well. Intact cells take up calcein-AM and convert it to the fluorescent dye calcein—giving a quantitative measure of the remaining intact cells. Burst cells do not convert the precursor to the dye. Water uptake by AQP4-expressing cells is relatively rapid, with most test cells bursting within 4 min of hypotonic shock, whereas most cells expressing CD81 remain viable after 8 min. Intracellular conversion of calcein-AM provides a strong and easily detectable signal at 535 nM in our assay (FIG. 7).

Calcein Fluorescence End-Point Assay:

Cells are seeded 24 hr before assay to reach 100% confluence. Culture medium was replaced with H₂O for 5:30 min (osmotic shock). Osmolality is then normalized with the addition of 2×PBS plus 2 μM calcein-AM. Cells are then incubated at 37° C. for an additional 30 min and fluorescence measured on a plate-reader. Rows 1-22 are seeded with CHO-AQP4 cells, and rows 23-24, with CHO-CD81 cells (384 well plate). Note, all plate edges are discarded. Relative Fluorescence Intensity is calculated as the fluorescence intensity (FI) of each well divided by the mean FI of AQP4 cells treated with DMSO (control). Criteria for a successful assay: coefficients of variation (CVs)<15%, and Z-factors >0.5. Statistical analysis shows that 5.5 min of osmotic shock provides the optimal signal-to-noise ratio.

TABLE 2 Statistics for endpoint ‘calcein’ assay in FIG. 7; 5:30 min time point shown: Mean StDev CV Z′ S/B AQP4 581618 66311 11% 0.629 5.0 CD81 2910106 221240 8%

As will be observed, the signal for the CD81 cells is ca. 5× higher than the signal for the APQ4 cells, because by 5.5 mins, most of the AQP4 cells have burst, while most of the CD81 cells remain intact. Inhibition of AQP4 would therefore be expected to provide a higher signal, more like the CD81 cells.

This assay is applied in a pilot screen of the MicroSource GenPlus 960 and the Maybridge Diversity™ 20 k libraries (approximately 21,000 compounds tested, each compound at 10-20 μM).

From this assay, a specific chemical series is identified, phenylbenzamides, which represents 3 out of the top 234 hits.

Hits from the HTS are validated using the same assay using a different plating arrangement. In FIG. 8, we show this validation assay used to examine Compound 3. Cells are seeded in a 96 well multiplate format with the plates edges omitted (lanes 1 and 24) and an entire column (n=16) is used to test the ability of a compound to block AQP4-mediated cell bursting upon H₂O shock. CHO cells expressing CD81 are seeded in lanes 2-3 as a control, and CHO cells expressing AQP4, in lanes 4-23. Cells are treated with 0.1% DMSO in 10% FBS, DMEM (even numbered columns) or 10 μM Compound 1 (odd number columns) in 0.1% DMSO, 10% FBS, DMEM for 30 minutes. The cells are shocked with H₂O for 5:30 minutes, then osmolality returned to 300 mOSM in the presence of 1 μM calcein-AM, as described above. The cells are incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes and the relative fluoresence measured (ex 495/em 535 nM) on a fluoresence multiplate reader. The data in FIG. 8 represents the average relative fluoresence units (RFU±SEM, n=16).

Example 6—Water Toxicity Model for CE: Intracranial Pressure (ICP)

ICP is monitored using a Samba 420 Sensor, pressure transducer, with a Samba 202 control unit (Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, Mass.). This ICP monitoring system consists of a 0.42 mm silicon sensor element mounted on an optical fiber. A 20-gauge syringe needle is implanted through the cisterna magna to a depth of ˜1 cm. The needle then acts as a guide for insertion of the Samba Sensor and the site of implantation and the open end of the needle are sealed with 100% silicone sealant. A baseline ICP reading is established followed by a water bolus IP injection (20% weight of animal) with or without Compound 1. ICP is monitored until the animal expires from the water load.

Adjusting for the slight rise in ICP observed in the animals when they are monitored without the water bolus injection (FIG. 9, No Water Toxicity), Compound 1 at 0.76 mg/kg reduces the relative rate of ICP rise by 36%, from 3.6×10⁻³ min⁻¹ to 2.3×10⁻³ min⁻¹ (n=6 mice/treatment, mean±SEM).

Example 7—Conversion of Compound 5 to Compound 1

Plasma or serum levels of Compound 1 are measured by LC-MS/MS at the Mass Spectrometry II Core facility at the Lerner Research Institute of the Cleveland Clinic Foundation. Measurements are taken at 15 minutes and 24 hours after a 10 mg/kg i.p. loading dose and 1 mg/ml at 8 μl/h maintenance dose (delivered by an Alzet i.p. osmotic pump, Durect Corp., Cupertino, Calif.) of Compound 5 (n=5 mice/time point, mean±SEM) (FIG. 10). After initial processing to remove proteins (75% acetonitrile extraction), Compound 3 is introduced to improve quantitation using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM). Samples are analyzed by tandem LC-MS/MS using C18 reversed-phase chromatography and mass analysis with a triple-quadrapole mass spectrometer. The LC method is sufficient to separate Compound 1 from Compound 3 and subsequent MRM gave reliable quantitation with a linear response from 0.004-0.4 ng of Compound 1 for its most abundant daughter ion. The dashed line in FIG. 10 is the relative effective plasma concentration of Compound 1 observed in the mouse water toxicity model. Inclusion of an Alzet osmotic pump (Durect Corp., Cupertino, Calif.) containing Compound 5 in the peritoneum was sufficient, in conjunction with an initial loading dose, to sustain Compound 1 above the expected efficacious plasma concentration of 20 ng/ml for 24 hours (FIG. 10).

The solubility of Compound 1 in water is 3.8 μg/ml. The solubility of Compound 5 in water is 1 mg/ml. Initial experiments show rapid bioconversion of Compound 5 to Compound 1 when added to mouse plasma in vitro. Less than 5 minutes at 20° C. is sufficient to render Compound 5 undetectable. In addition, Compound 1 is undetectable in plasma samples taken from mice injected IP with Compound 5. Instead, Compound 1 is detected at a concentration consistent with good bioavailability and near-complete conversion of Compound 5. With compound 5, doses of 10 mg/kg and IP injection volumes in saline (0.5 ml for a 30 g mouse), that give serum concentrations of Compound 1 in excess of 400 ng/ml (FIG. 10) can be used. Key PK parameters for Compound 5 are: rate of absorption 0.12 min⁻¹; rate of elimination 0.017 min⁻¹.

Example 8—Animal Stroke Model

Most ischemic strokes (˜80%) occur in the region of the middle cerebral artery (MCA). To mimic this injury in mice, an intraluminal monofilament model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo) is used. Occlusion is achieved by inserting a surgical filament into the external carotid artery (ECA) and threading it forward into the internal carotid artery (ICA) until the tip blocks the origin of the MCA. The resulting cessation of blood flow gives rise to subsequent brain infarction in the MCA territory (Longa., E. Z. et al., Reversible Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Without Craniectomy in Rats, Stroke, 20, 84-91 (1989)). This technique is used to study a temporary occlusion in which the MCA was blocked for one hour. The filament is then removed allowing reperfusion to occur for 24 hours before the animal's brain was imaged. using T2-weighted scans in a 9.4T Bruker MRI scanner at the Case Center for Imaging Research (FIG. 11). FIG. 11 shows a single slice from a T2-weighted MR image depicting the center of the brain showing cerebral cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, amygdala and hypothalamus for a “Normal” mouse (left panels) and a mouse which receives MCAo for one hour followed by 24 hours of reperfusion (right panels). Dashed lines mark the midline of the brain and show a large shift in the MCAo brain due to cerebral edema. Solid line highlights the region of infarct in the MCAo brain.

Survival—

Mice are treated with Compound 5 using a 2 mg/kg i.p. loading dose and 1 mg/ml at 8 μl/h maintenance dose (delivered by an i.p. osmotic pump) of Compound 5, or given saline (controls; n=17) using an identical approach. In this model, we observed a 29.4% improvement in overall survival at 24 h when animals are treated with Compound 5 (X²(1)=4.26; P<0.05).

Cerebral Edema—

Mice are given saline or treated with Compound 5 by multi-dosing at 5 mg/kg i.p. every three hours (n=8 per treatment). This dosing regimen is sufficient to maintain a plasma concentration of Compound 1>10 ng/ml for the duration of the study. Ipsilateral and contralateral hemispheric volume is measured from the T2-weighted MR images of mice 24 hours post-icus. Relative change in hemispheric volume is calculated as a percent of the difference between ipsilateral brain volume (V₁) and contralateral brain volume (V_(c)) relative to the contralateral brain volume (Percent Change in Hemispheric Brain Volume=((V_(i)−V_(c))/V_(c))×100%.

Control animals show swelling in the ipsilateral hemisphere with a relative change in ipsilateral brain volume of 13.4%±1.9%, while animals given Compound 5 show a 4.2±1.7% change (P=0.003, ±SEM, see FIG. 12). This represents a 3.2-fold reduction in brain swelling after MCAo.

Neurological Outcome—

In the same experiment as above, animals are scored for neurological outcome on a simple 5 point scale described in Manley, G. T. et al., Aquaporin-4 Deletion in Mice Reduces Brain Edema After Acute Water Intoxication and Ischemic Stroke, Nature Medicine, 6, 159-163 (2000). An improvement in neurological outcome is observed for animals given Compound 5. Control animals have an average neurological score of 2.77±0.66, while animals given Compound 5 have an average score of 0.88±0.31 (FIG. 13, inset, P=0.025, n=9 per treatment). Animals given Compound 5 did not progress into a state of severe paralysis or death.

The data from the MCAo stroke model together with the water toxicity (brain edema) model link the pharmacology of Compound 5/Compound 1 with improved outcomes in stroke. 

The invention claimed is:
 1. A method of treating or controlling a disease or condition mediated by an aquaporin selected from cytotoxic cerebral edema and spinal cord edema comprising administering to a human patient in need thereof an effective amount of an aquaporin inhibitor of formula 1a:

wherein: R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅ are selected from H, halo, halogenated C₁₋₄ alkyl, and cyano; and R₆ is selected from H and physiologically hydrolysable and acceptable acyl; in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein: R₁ is selected from trifluoromethyl, chloro, fluoro, and bromo; R₃ and R₅ are the same or different and selected from trifluoromethyl, chloro, fluoro, and bromo; and R₂ and R₄ are both H.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein: R₁ is selected from chloro and bromo; R₃ and R₅ are both trifluoromethyl; and R₂, R₄ and R₆ are all H.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein R₆ is a phosphono group, which may be substituted or unsubstituted.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the aquaporin inhibitor of formula 1a is selected from


6. The method of claim 1, wherein the aquaporin inhibitor of formula 1a is

in free form.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the aquaporin inhibitor of formula 1a is

in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form.
 8. The method of claim 6, wherein the condition to be treated or controlled is cytotoxic cerebral edema.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a head trauma, a stroke, a glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, an epileptic seizure, an infection, a metabolic disorder, hypoxia, water intoxication, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to an abscess, eclampsia, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, or lupus cerebritis.
 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to microgravity exposure, radiation exposure, or an invasive central nervous system procedure.
 12. The method of claim 9, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a head trauma, a stroke, a glioma, meningitis, acute mountain sickness, an epileptic seizure, hypoxia, hepatic failure, hepatic encephalopathy, or diabetic ketoacidosis.
 13. The method of claim 9, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a stroke.
 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to an ischemic stroke.
 15. The method of claim 9, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a head trauma.
 16. The method of claim 8, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a traumatic brain injury.
 17. The method of claim 6, wherein the condition to be treated or controlled is spinal cord edema.
 18. The method of claim 17, wherein the spinal cord edema is consequent to spinal cord trauma.
 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the spinal cord trauma is spinal cord compression.
 20. The method of claim 8, wherein the patient has suffered a stroke or head injury within 12 hours of commencing treatment.
 21. The method of claim 8, wherein the patient has suffered a stroke or head injury within 6 hours of commencing treatment.
 22. The method of claim 8, wherein the patient has suffered a stroke or head injury within 3 hours of commencing treatment.
 23. The method of claim 6, wherein the condition to be treated or controlled is cytotoxic cerebral edema consequent to hypoxia.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the hypoxia is caused by cardiac arrest or other interruption of blood perfusion to the brain.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the hypoxia is caused by a stroke.
 26. The method of claim 1, wherein the aquaporin inhibitor of formula 1a is

in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the condition to be treated or controlled is cytotoxic cerebral edema.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a head trauma, a stroke, or hypoxia.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to an ischemic stroke.
 30. The method of claim 27, wherein the cytotoxic cerebral edema is consequent to a traumatic brain injury.
 31. The method of claim 28, wherein the hypoxia is caused by cardiac arrest, a stroke, or other interruption of blood perfusion to the brain.
 32. The method of claim 17, wherein the patient has suffered a spinal injury within 12 hours of commencing treatment.
 33. The method of claim 17, wherein the patient has suffered a spinal injury within 6 hours of commencing treatment.
 34. The method of claim 17, wherein the patient has suffered a spinal injury within 3 hours of commencing treatment.
 35. The method of claim 7, wherein the condition to be treated or controlled is spinal cord edema.
 36. The method of claim 35, wherein the spinal cord edema is consequent to spinal cord trauma.
 37. The method of claim 36, wherein the spinal cord trauma is spinal cord compression.
 38. The method of claim 35, wherein the patient has suffered a spinal injury within 12 hours of commencing treatment.
 39. The method of claim 35, wherein the patient has suffered a spinal injury within 6 hours of commencing treatment.
 40. The method of claim 35, wherein the patient has suffered a spinal injury within 3 hours of commencing treatment. 